Hudson’s Bay Company

Hudson Bay Company

 Introduction

The Hudson’s Bay Company provides us with some of the most extensive document collections used to obtain further insights into Trapper Medicine.   Due to the lengthy history of Hudson’s Bay’s interactions in Canada and the Midwestern and Northwestern United States, we are able to document some fairly lengthy lists of medicine employed during these expeditions and trade excursions.  The only disadvantage to the Hudson’s Bay material is that it focused on the Hudson’s Bay Company, and has less documentation than we would like regarding any one-to-one interactions trappers and traders had Indians.  Nevertheless, the Hudson’s Bay Records provide some details into this part of American medical history that would otherwise be lost or overlooked if the total size of this collection was more limited and its many trapper’s life stories more scarce.  This material I cover by no means is meant to detail everything about the fifty years or more of Hudson’s Bay Company history that could be assessed.  Instead, the purpose here is just to focus on the rugged mountainman trapper experience and the interactions these trappers had with Native Americans.  Without such reviews, we would never learn everything about the trapper experience in the wilderness.  For obvious reasons it is unusual for many records to be kept, by nature or on paper, for someone who spends much if his life in the widerness.  

One of the tricks to going through a list like this is learning to recognize European and American medicines.  The Hudson’s Bay Company was pretty much British owned and operated, and its medicines are for the most part tend to be old-time favorites, medicines in existence since the middle to late colonial years of exploration and settlement.  There are a few recent updates in some medicines noted by Hudson Bay records, like the quinine extracted from cinchona and the paregoric derived from opium.

The single most important author in the Hudson Bay series is Isham, an agent for Hudson’s Bay who was a skilled trapper residing just north of the US-Canadian border in the wilderness.  He had numerous encounters with Native American groups, usually non-violent, and was able to document some of their most traditional shamanic and spiritual cleansing practices.  Isham’s work is very authentic in style and presentations.  Able to write but unable to spell, the more pertinent parts of Isham’s work are extensively quoted in my reviews.

The single most important medicinal item I noted are probably the contents of several Medicine Bags.  In one of these “Sacred Objects”, the medicine man who owned of it placed several very unique items made from “sequoia’s leaves” or paper (to pull from U.S. culture here as well). These “powerful medicines” consisted of a couple of children’s playing cards, which the medicine man probably felt were very new and unusual. Another unique bag demonstrating cross-cultural influence was that bearing spices from the Spice Islands, such as allspice, nutmeg and cloves.

The most important philosophy this review of Hudson’s Bay documents provides us with is a better perspective of is Sanative healing (see Sanative).  This term is also used in the New France writings of the late 17th century to late 18th century.

Another batch of entries to take note of are the lengthy sections I have included on the following: Natural History (Andrew Grahams) and a number of lists of Foods and Medicine provided by the Arctic records.

An interesting side note I came upon during this research pertained to the common foodstuff found at contemporary Native American gatherings–deep fried dough. Flour from grain, capable of rising, was not a traditional commodity although traditional starchy, root-derived flour was. Likewise, the use of vats of oil to cook your starches was also not common to native culture. Together these cooking practices had tremendous impacts on native health, and symbolize the first step in assimiliation and the development of obesity and diabetes in early Native American culture. In one of the Hudson’s Bay books, of events dating to the 1790s, a footnote appears attributing this practice to a Scottish group residing on the western shores of the Bay. [need citation]

Other most important entries to note here are the description of sweating and the notes on Tuckathins.

 

Materia Medica

Adhesive Plaster

1/4 yd      Adhesive Plaster

Part of Medicine Kit ordered for Rae’s 1853 Arctic Expedition.

[J. Rae, 1853, 335]

See also “Medicines–Hudson’s Bay Company.”

Ammonia–see Hartshorn

“Anchillico”

Angelica? or a natural relative of it such as Cow Parsnip and Hercules Club?  Describing it, he writes “Vast quantity’s of a great bigness, having some Eight or nine foot high, and about as thick as the Rist.”  This fits the description better of a Heracleum sp.

[Isham, 1743-9, 134]

Athatawiuck–see Scurvy Grass

Bandage Supplies

1     ”     white Lint              6/8         -.1.8

Part of Medicine Kit ordered for Rae’s 1845 Arctic Expedition.

[J. Rae, 1845, 309]

See also “Medicines–Hudson’s Bay Company,” Plasters, etc..

Basilicon Ointment

  • “2 Jars     Baz. Ointment           10d     L -.1.8”
  • 1 box Basil[i]con ointment

Part of Medicine Kits ordered for Rae’s 1845 and 1853 Arctic Expeditions.

[J. Rae, 1845, 309]

See also “Medicines–Hudson’s Bay Company,” Plasters, etc..

basilicon 2 lbs.

One of the medicines received by Robert Garson and George Spence, on January 12, 1996, from James Swain of the Buckingham House.

[W. Tomison, 1795-6, 24-25]

See also Medicines–Hudson’s Bay Company.

Cacumpucka (narrow-leaved Labrador Tea, Ledum palustre Linn.)–see Labrador Tea.

Calomel

2  ozs      Calomel

Part of Medicine Kit ordered for Rae’s 1853 Arctic Expedition.

[J. Rae, 1845, 309]

See also “Medicines–Hudson’s Bay Company.”

Calamine Ointment

2  ”        Cal.    Do.             10d         -.1.8

1 box Calamine ointment 1/4 lb.

Part of Medicine Kits ordered for Rae’s 1845 and 1853 Arctic Expeditions.

[J. Rae, 1845, 309; 1853, 335]

See also Medicines–Hudson’s Bay Company.

Castor Oil

1/2         Castor Oil              2/-         -.1.-

2 lbs.      Castor Do.

Part of Medicine Kit ordered for Rae’s 1845 and 1853 Arctic Expeditions.

[J. Rae, 1845, 309; 1853, 335]

See also “Medicines–Hudson’s Bay Company,” Mustard and other Plasters, etc..

Cheese–see Food–Hudson’s Bay Company.

Compound Colocynth Pills

2   ” compd. colocynth Pills in pills

Part of Medicine Kit ordered for Rae’s 1853 Arctic Expedition.

[J. Rae, 1845, 309]

See also “Medicines–Hudson’s Bay Company.”

Conjuring

Description given, included “Conjuring & Dancing…” Blowing in the ears, and the use of symbolic healing: “they also have a Conceited notion, some things the Sick Keep’s is the occation of their Sickness, which if put a side cures them.”

[Isham, 1743-9, 98-99]

Croton Oil

1/4 ” Croton Oil

Part of Medicine Kit ordered for Rae’s 1853 Arctic Expedition.

[J. Rae, 1845, 309]

See also “Medicines–Hudson’s Bay Company.”

Currants

“1-2 [Galls] Keg Currants     7/10       L. -.7.10”

Part of Nutriment ordered for Rae’s 1845 Arctic Expedition.

[J. Rae, 1845, 309]

See also Food–Hudson’s Bay Company.

Epsom Salts

“4 lb.      Epsoms Salts            3d    L -.1.-“

2   ” Epsom Salts

Part of Medicine Kit ordered for Rae’s 1845 and 1853 Arctic Expeditions.

[J. Rae, 1845, 309; 1853, 335]

See also Medicines–Hudson’s Bay Company.

Fir

“Athinue-Artick, the Fir…the buds are used by the natives, they boiling them in water and drinks the liquor as a remedy against inward disorders.  I have sent small quantities of these buds home to England, where they sold at nine pence per pound weight.”

[A. Graham, 1768, pp. 128]

Foods–Hudson’s Bay Company, Arctic

Nutriments and medicaments ordered for the Arctic Exploration, 1845:

  • 5 Galls     Brandy                  5/3      L 2.1.3
  • 1-2  ”    Keg Currants       7/10        -.7.10
  • 12 3/4 lbs Cheese (useless)   [7/10]      -.-.-
  • 6  Squares Mustard                  2/5         -.4.16
  • 6 1/2 lbs Black Pepper        8d          -.4.4
  • 2 ”         Pimento                 7d          -.1.2
  • 2 7/8 Gall Shrub              4/8         1.13.5
  • 60 lbs      Loaf Sugar        5d          1.5.-
  • 32  ”       Hyson Tea               3/4         5.6.8
  • 16  ”       souchong Tea            2/8         2.2.8
  • 1     2 Gall Keg Raisins            7/10        -.7.10
  • 2     2   ”   ”  Rice         5/9/        -.11.6
  • 4  Galls    Madeira Wine            13/4        2.13.4
  • 3/4  ”      Port    Do.             9/5         -.7.1

                                        TOTAL    L 16.16.7

Nutriments and medicaments ordered for the Arctic Exploration, 1853:

  • 15 bags Pemmican.
  • 15  ”   Flour
  • 4  Gns. Salt
  • 1  cwt. Biscuit   fine/1/2   second/1/2
  • 30 lbs. congou Tea
  • 10  ”   Hyson Do.
  • 4 Kegs  Sugar ea 8 Gns.
  • 1  ”    port Wine 2 Gns
  • 1  ”    Madeira Do. 2 “
  • 2  ”    Brandy ea. 2  “
  • 3 lbs.  Pepper
  • 3  ”    Mustard
  • 30 ”    Chocolate
  • 1 Keg   Raisins 2 Gns
  • 1  ”    Rice    2  “
  • [J. Rae, 1845, 309; 1853, 335]
  • Word Contraction Notes:
  • d–dozen
  • Do.–Ditto
  • L–Pound Sign for currency

RESEARCH NOTES: Diets were looked upon as highly significant in the health of patients.  Shaw’s Book of Medicine of the Eighteenth Century notes much about food and drink types and how the patient’s status effects what food you must feed him.  About the same time, Lemery published a book on Food and Food chemistry. 

Several of these nutritional items served as medicines themselves, or for making medicines.   The Brandy, Madiera Wine and Port Wine served as bases for many herbal and mineral preparations made by the apothecaries.  Sugar was used to make conserves and conectionary medications (lozenges, troches, syrups, etc.).  The Hyson and souchong Tea were both considered “tonic” beverages for the sick, used to heat the patient so long as a plain, bland diet was not part of the nutritional healing option.  The Rice and Raisins were valuable nutrients; the Rice is a bland food, often used for feeding patients for Liver and Gall problems.  The Currants were a valuable flavorant added to medicines.   The Mustard could be used to make a Mustard Plaster for lung diseases.  The Black Pepper could serve as a tonic and fever stimulant, and was highly popular before the Peruvian bark was discovered. [See notes on Nun’s Hospital, regarding the use of Black Pepper as a Fever stimulant and a pre-Peruvian Bark fever medicine.]   Pimento sometimes served as a medicine.  The value of the cheese (other than as a food) and why was it noted to be “useless” are uncertain.

      See “Medicines–Hudson’s Bay Company”

Foods–Native Americans

A brownish moss which grows on rocks is washed, boiled and then eaten, at times with a gruel.

[Isham, 1743-9, 132]

Isham also noted in passing Goose Berries, Currans, Cranberries, “Huckle berries or Dew berries,” Yellow Berrie…(alias Borocatomenuck) which is like unto a Rasberrie” (Salmonberry), Strawberries, Juniper Berries, “Cherry’s wild,” Plums [Beach Plums?], and what are perhaps cultivated Pears.

[Isham, 1743-9, 133]

Fruit–see Foods

Glauber’s Salt

On Tuesday 22nd, 1826, Ogden noted the “many small Lakes that were well supplyed with Glauber Salts.”  This is Ogden’s only mention of a medicine.

[P. Ogden, 1826-7, p. 119]

Glauber’s salts 2 lbs.

One of the medicines received by Robert Garson and George Spence, on January 12, 1996, from James Swain of the Buckingham House.

[W. Tomison, 1795-6, 24-25]

See also Medicines–Hudson’s Bay Company.

Grapes–see Oregon Grape

Gums

1     ”     Gum arabic              4/11        -.1.3

Part of Medicine Kit ordered for Rae’s 1845 Arctic Expedition.

[J. Rae, 1845, 309]

See also “Medicines–Hudson’s Bay Company,” Plasters, etc..

Hartshorn

a bottle of hartshorn useless

Part of the medicines allotted to Robert Garson and George Spence on January 12, 1996, by James Swain of the Buckingham House.

[W. Tomison, 1795-6, 24-25]

Ipecacuanha

ipecacuanha 1/2 lb.

One of the medicines received by Robert Garson and George Spence, on January 12, 1996, from James Swain of the Buckingham House.

[W. Tomison, 1795-6, 24-25]

See also Medicines–Hudson’s Bay Company.

Jackashepuck–see Bearberry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi Linn)

Jackashipuck–see Bearberry

Jalap

jalap 1 lb. “good for nothing”

One of the medicines received by Robert Garson and George Spence, on January 12, 1996, from James Swain of the Buckingham House.

[W. Tomison, 1795-6, 24-25]

See also Medicines–Hudson’s Bay Company.

Jugglers/Conjurors

See A. Graham, 1768, pp. 160-164, and footnote 2, p. 161.

See Tuckathin [Native American “doctors”].

Labrador Tea

“Plants of Physicky Herb’s Several are growing in these parts one of Which they styl (wishakapucka) which is us’d as a perge or fomentation, but the English in these parts make a Drink of itt, going by the Name of wishakapucka tea, being of fine flavor and Reckon’d Very wholesome,–I was troubled Very much my Self with a Nervous Disorder, but by Constant Drinking 1 pint made strong for three months Entirely cur’d me, &c.”

[Isham, (1738) 1743-9, 132]

“And here I can but Observe that the plant Wizzakapuckka, intirely cur’d me of being Very much Efflicted with a Nervious Disorder, when I went into that country Last, and have Known a person since my arrival in England, Which was troubled with a giddiness in his head, and Subject to faiting fits, by using this plant made strong, twice a Day, has found a Great Deal of Benefitt by itt.  but as to the Indians using itt I must conterdict the Author, for to my certain Knowledge, there is none of the Indians usd, it in any shape; so fair from using itt I have offered some to them when they have Refus’d itt with a Great Dislike; Shaggamittee also they do not use when they are indispos’d, any more then at another time; being as common a Drink to them as small Beer is to us &c.”

[Isham, 1743-9 (Ellis, 1746-7), 217]

Wishekapacwaw (Labrador Tea, Ledum groenlandicum Oeder.)  “Is extremely plentiful in all the woods on the coast….It makes an agreeable tea, much in use here both by Europeans and Americans, not only as a pleasure drink, but for its salutary virtues; for it is an aromatic and serviceable in rheumatic complaints, strengthens the stomach, and relieves the head, also promotes perspiration.  Outwardly it is applied to gangrenes, contusions, and excoriations.  In the latter case the powder is made use of.  It is not much regarded by the Faculty in England, for which reason none is sent home except a little as presents to oblige our friends, it not being known in Great Britain.  In 1772 I sent home a specimen to Dr Hope, and thrives in the Botanic Garden.”

[A. Graham, 1768, pp. 130]

Cacumpucka (narrow-leaved Labrador Tea, Ledum palustre Linn.)  “Is a shrub like the wishecumpucka but one half smaller…I am of the opinion it is the same kind of shrub as that found on the coast of Labradore, and goes home to England under the name Hyperian tea.  When made into tea it tastes nearly the same as the wishecumpucka, and are both evergreens.”

[A. Graham, 1768, pp. 129-130]

[Footnote, p. 130]  “The WISH-A-CU-PUCCA, which grows in most parts of this country, is said by some Authors to have great medical virtues, applied either inwardly or as an alternative, or outwardly dried and pulverised, to old sores and gangrenes.  The truth, of this I much doubt, and could never think it had the least medical quality.  It is, however, much used by the lower class of the Company’s servants as tea; and by some thought to be very pleasant.”   [Glover. A Journey to the Northern Ocean by Samuel Hearne, p. 293.]

See Scurvy, Tuckathin (a French-Canadian/Metis doctor type?) 

Note: Other references for reviewing Wishekapacwaw include Editor J.B. Tyrell’s notes in Samuel Hearn’s A Journey from Prince of Wale’s Fort in Hudson’s Bay to the Northern Ocean In the Years 1769, 1770, 1771, and 1772 and David Thompson’s Narrative of his Explorations in Western America 1784-1812. 

Lavender

one bottle of lavender

One of the medicines received by Robert Garson and George Spence, on January 12, 1996, from James Swain of the Buckingham House.

[W. Tomison, 1795-6, 24-25]

See also Medicines–Hudson’s Bay Company.

Laxatives–see Purges

Lead Plaster

Medicine Bag

“Manitow, the god-bag.  Every married man has a bag or parcel covered with cloth, or fine-dressed deer skin, which is put into a case of birch-rind to keep off wet.  It is generally ornamented with paint, beads, or brass-tags.  It contains mediciens for his family, beaver-teeth, bear’s claws, eagles-talons, the beautiful red foreheads of woodpeckers, and many other kinds of feathers.  These are held in veneration, and are usually presents from the old people to a young man in his nuptials; and partly of his own procuring.  Upon every increase of his family, something curious is always added to this cabinet; and if a child dies a piece of wood is cut with features of a face engraven and painted on it.  This is deposited as a relict or remembrances of the deceased.  This collection is always carried by the man when travelling; the woman dare not touch it, or look at the contents.  It is only opened at feasts, public meetings or conjuring.   N.B. I presented a manitow to the Edinburgh Royal Society, January 1787.”  [The editor refers the reader to Mackenzie’s Voyages…to the Frozen and Pacific Oceans, pp. 100-103.]

[A. Graham, 1767-91, pp. 164]

Medicines–Anglican-influenced Medicine Bag Contents

Medicine Bag ingredients:

  • lumps of white sugar
  • grains of coffee
  • [black] pepper
  • allspice
  • cloves
  • tea
  • nutmegs
  • ginger, “and other things of this kind.”
  • numerous small papers
  •       –folded to contain the above, or as…
  • small prints…each transformed into a talisman.

In a footnote in Graham’s book [p. 321], reference is made to Alexander Henry’s writings about some of the Spice Islands and West Indies herb, and English paper exchanges which took place.  [Travels and Adventures …by Alexander Henry, (Ed. Bain) p. 334-335.]  It notes that “If the testimony of the elder Henry is to be trusted, not all of the Company factors were content to trade ‘simple medicines’.  In 1776 Henry met a Chipewyan Indian who allowed him to inspect the medicines he had obtained the previous year at one of the Company posts (presumably Churchill). 

 “Accordingly, he brought a bag, containing numerous small papers, in which I found lumps of white sugar, grains of coffee, pepper, allspice, cloves, tea, nutmegs, ginger and other things of this kind, sold as specifics against evil spirits, and against the dangers of battle; as giving power over enemies, and particularly the white bear, of which the Indians of these latitudes are much afraid:–others were infallible against barrenness in women; against difficult labours; and against a variety of other afflictions.  In a second parcel, I found small prints; the identical ones, which, in England, are commonly sold in sheets to children, but each was here transformed into a talisman, for the care of some evil, or obstenation of some delight….”

[A. Graham, 1767-91, (fn 1) pp. 321]

Medicines–Hudson’s Bay Company (General Notes)

William Tomison’s diary extends from July 28, 1795 to February 1796.  On January 12, 1796, William Tomison made valuable comments on the medical supplies allotted to him at the Buckingham House by James Swain Hudson’s Bay Company:

  • a bottle of hartshorn useless
  • one bottle of Turlington
  • one bottle of lavender
  • a small bottle of tincture of Rhubarb
  • jalap 1 lb. “good for nothing”
  • ipecacuanha 1/2 lb.
  • Glauber’s salts 2 lbs.
  • sulphur 2 lbs.
  • basilicon 2 lbs.
  • powder of rhubarb 1/4 lb.
  • Spanish juice 2 lbs.
  • 4 oz. strengthening plaster
  • 5 gallipots
  • 24 small vials
  • some corks for ditto
  • one old sheet
  • as much lint as would dress a common wound six times

“a box of medicines and a keg of salt” noted in a letter dated 4 January 1796, sent by James Swain to William Tomlinson. [W. Tomison, 1795-6, 54]

“tea and sugar” noted in a letter dated 12 February 1796, sent by William Tomlinson to George Sutherland. [W. Tomison, 1795-6, 55-56]

“opodeldoc” and “strengthening plaster” are noted in a letter dated 15 February 1796, sent by William Tomlinson to James Swain. [W. Tomison, 1795-6, 56-57]  [See separate note on Opodeldoc for accurate definition, replacing that of the footnote on this page in the HBRS text.]

See individual entries for most of these medicines.

[W. Tomison, 1795-6, 24-25, 54-57]

Medicines noted in a letter from William Tomison to George Sutherland, dated 4 December 1797, Edmonton House]:

  • tincture of opium
  • some Spanish flies
  • two parts of blister plaster

[G. Sutherland, 1797, 129]

Part of an account given of a trade taking place in a trading tent, between the Governor, the Tribal Council and the Captain who had several doctors present with him as well:

“The captains and several others are doctors, and are taken singly with their wives into a room where they are given a red leather trunk with a few simple medicines…The use of everything is explained and the women are bid to remember, and indeed their memories are very tenacious.  A picture is generally put up with the things, for it is held in great reverence and thought to add to the efficacy of the remedies.”

The following medicines were noted in Andrew Graham’s text, presumably as part of the traditional regular doctor’s apothecary.  These medicines were in possession of a captain and several of his doctors, and were stored in a red leather trunk.

  • sulphur
  • bark [powder of]
  • liquorice
  • camphorated spirit
  • white ointment
  • basilicon
  • diachylon plaster

Medicines–Hudson’s Bay Company, Arctic [1845, 1853]

Medicaments ordered for the Arctic Exploration, 1845:

  • 1/2 doz   Turlingtons Balsam        21/4     L -.10.8
  • 1/6 Gro     Vial Corks              11d         -.-.2
  • 1/2 doz     Essce. of Peppermint    14/-        -.7.-
  • 1           Lancet                        3/4         -.3.4
  • 1/2 lb.     Soap Liniment                 5/7         -.2.10
  • 1     ”     white Lint              6/8         -.1.8
  • 1     ”     Gum arabic              4/11        -.1.3
  • 1/2         Castor Oil              2/-         -.1.-
  • 2 Jars      Baz. Ointment                 10d         -.1.8
  • 2  ”        Cal.    Do.             10d         -.1.8
  • 2 yds Spread Plaster                2/-         -.4.-
  • 1/2 lb.     Blister Do.             6/3         -.3.2
  • 2 Doz.      Purges                        1/4         -.2.8
  • 4 lb.       Epsoms Salts                  3d          -.1.-
  • 1 doz Vials 1 oz.             1/4         -.1.4
  • 1 doz Vomits                        1/4         -.1.4
  • 2 jars      Sat. Ointment                 1/-         -.2.-

                                                Total  L 2.6.9

Medicaments ordered for the Arctic Exploration, 1853:

  • 1   oz      Tinct Opium
  • 1/4 ” Croton Oil
  • 2 lbs.      Castor Do.
  • 2   ” Olive Do.
  • 2   ” Epsom Salts
  • 2  ozs      Calomel
  • 1/4 ” powdered Opium
  • 2   ” compd. colocynth Pills in pills
  • 1/4 yd      Adhesive Plaster
  • 1 box Basil[i]con ointment
  • 1 box Calamine ointment 1/4 lb.
  • 1  ”        Saturnine Do.
  • 1  ” Spermaceti Do.
  • 1/4 lb.     white Lint
  • 1 tooth key & scarificator.
  • Word Contraction Notes:
  • Baz.–Basilicon
  • Cal.–Calamine
  • d–dozen
  • Do.–Ditto
  • Gro–Gross
  • L–Pound Sign for currency
  • Sat.–Saturnine [Lead (see Lead Plaster)]

[J. Rae, 1845, 309-310; 1853, 333-335]

See Foods–Hudson’s Bay Company.                                             

Miniakeg–see Pine

Missanepuck–see Scurvy-grass

Mosquito Bites

Mosquitoes are responsible for the spread of Malaria [Intermittent Fever or Fever and Ague] and Yellow [Biliary] Fever.  These fevers thus relate to the living habits and ability of the mosquito and of the pathogenic organism they carry.  Fever plagues due to mosquitoes occur mostly in the early summer months–June, July and August.  Numerous treatments were tried by pioneers and trappers to eliminate the problems following the “sting” or mosquito bite.  Graham notes the use of “smoke of tobacco” and “smoke of wet grass”  to keep them out of the encampments.  To protect the head and face while sleeping the linen cap was recommended.  a “whisk of buffalo, or horse hair” was noted for use in brushing them off the skin and away.

The mention of the sting as a “tumor” indicates the types of definition then in use: “The sting raises a small tumour or sometimes only an effloresence, which goes off in a day or two, if rubbed now and then with vinegar.”  Vinegar is also used this way for treating the bites of the Sand-Fly, which appear in August.

[A. Graham, 1768, pp. 126-7]

Moss–see “Foods–Native Americans”

Mustard

“6  Squares Mustard           2/5         L -.4.16”

“3  ”    Mustard”

Part of Nutriment ordered for Rae’s 1845 Arctic Expedition.

[J. Rae, 1845, 309; 1853, 335]

See also Food–Hudson’s Bay Company.

Natural History–Andrew Graham (1768-72)

The following is a list of plants discussed by Andrew Graham in his natural history writings (pp. 128-138 of above mentioned item in Bibliography).  Most of these plants were noted in papers dating 1768-9.  The Hellebore is described in a 1772 writing published in Philosophical Transactions Volume 62, pp. 54-59.  Nearly all of these plants have relevant ethnobotany writings; for this coverage, only those which Graham noted as medicines (indicated by asterisks) are covered separately in this work.  Several other parts of his writings are mentioned as well: i.e. pp. 160-7 [shamanism], and 320 [English medicines].

Flora, listed in order of appearance:

  • *Miniakeg, the Pine, both red and white.
  • *Athinue-Artick, the Fir…the buds
  • Wakenogan or the Juniper tree is a species of Cedar…
  • Metuus, the Poplar
  • Larch
  • Cedar
  • Wusquey, the Birch
  • Nipisi, Willows. Are plentiful along the coasts of four kinds, viz. the larch, the palm, the birch and the red willow.
  • The asp, ash, hazel, cherry, maple…Maple sugar
  • *Shrubs…from time to time have been strictly examined by their surgeons, and several kinds have been sent home but turned out of none effect.” [See related footnote, pp. 129-130]
  • *Wishekapacwaw (Labrador Tea, Ledum groenlandicum Oeder.)
  • *Cacumpucka (narrow-leaved Labrador Tea, Ledum palustre Linn.)
  • *Jackashipuck (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi Linn)
  • Askatash (Dawson Hemlock-Parsley? Conioselenum cnidiifolium). Edible.
  • Oukinniack (Wild Rose, Rosa acicularis Lindl.)
  • Pethokotominuck. (Cloudberry or Baked-Apple Berry, Rubus chamaemorus Linn.)
  • Minish (var. sorts):
  • Askemenuck or crow-berries
  • Pethaymenuck or partridge-berries
  • Skesheckamenuck or strawberries
  • Neneekamenuck or willow-berries
  • Shapomenuck or gooseberries
  • Mantoomenuck or blackcurrents
  • Atheekimenuck or red currants
  • Kawkawimenuck or juniper berries
  • Wapeckumenuck, or white currants
  • nuts
  • black cherries
  • a species of currants similar to those imported into Great Britain
  • mushrooms, Athatamiuck. Edible.
  • *Missanepuck, Scurvy-grass.
  • “wild tansy, mustard, celery, rosemary, thynme, white and blue violets, chick-weed, angelica, different kinds of sorrel, Lady’s Mantle, dandelion, a small kind of fern, scallions (i.e. a small kind of leeks), coltsfoot, nettles, borage, and an infinite number of others whose names and virtues are unknown for want of a skillful botanist.”
  • wild rice…Niscoshemin (Method of gathering and preparing is given, p. 133.)
  • Askee…kinds of mosses..black moss that adheres to rocks…boils to a jelly.  Survival food.
  • Muscoshee. Several species of grass…wire grass, sweetgrass, rye-grass, sea-grass, and “a rush that has a fragrant smell.”
  • var. garden plants: lettuce, cresses, radishes, onions, spinach, coleworts, turnips, pease, beans. Parsley, purslane, celery, carrots, parsnips, and several other kinds of seeds…”
  • Potatoes. (Trial planting noted)
  • var. Dyes:
  • Sawayan, Dyer’s Lady bedstraw
  • Amiscuminick berries
  • poplar-ashes
  • Mithco Sawyan [Red sawyan]
  • Galium luteum or yellow bedstraw
  • Three-leaved Hellebore, Helleoborus (sic) trifolius Linnaeus

      NOTE: the importance of this gardening history in ecology is that this gardening as early as 1671 is possibly the reason why certain weeds were already well established by the time the exploration of the Great Plains by trappers and pioneers took place, to be followed by the migration of the Oregon Trail.  In Philosophical Transactions, Vol. 60 for 1771 [London, 1771], Churchill William Wales’s “Journal of a Voyage, made by Order of the Royal Society, to Churchill River, on the North-west Coast of Hudson’s Bay; of Thirteen Months Residence in that Country; and of the Voyage back to England; in the Years 1768 and 1769: By William Wales (pp. 126-7), Churchill writes of the Dandelion growing in abundance in their gardens at the southerly posts of Moose and Albany.  These seeds came in by the London Committee to Charles Fort on the Rupert River.  Whether or not they were picked up by Canades removing to Louisiana Territory is uncertain, but may explain how these Garden plants made it into these regions as early as 1800/1840. 

      SPECIAL NOTE: As seen by the behavior of Digitalis and others (more recently Pokeweed–Phytolacca spp.), pioneers had to relocate these plants on the other side of the Rocky Mountains.  They did not make it easily acorss the Great Plains on their own. 

      Such was the case with Digitalis and its reseeding in the Bandon area of Oregon [see History of Coos-Curry Counties writing on this].  The Ladies’ Thumb (Polygonum sp.) of the Oregon Trail followed the trail quite precisely as it spread across Nebraska and into Wyoming, barely escaping from the riparian regions (and later counties in the Atlas of the Flora of the Great Plains) which this trail passed through.  The Rocky Mountain Bee Plant [Cleome sp.] was spread in an eastward direction along the southern California Trail, perhaps by early scouts and trappers who gathered it for medicine and carried the seeds back with them as part of the herbs they used, or carried back to sell in the Midwest.  Relate this same kind of analysis to the distribution of herbs along the trappers’, Creoles’, and Voyageurs’ routes through Canada and into the Red River-North Dakota-Minnesota region. 

For more on medicines used by Graham, see entries appearing under Vinegar, Mosquito Bites, Vinegar, white root, grass, juniper, bleeding, sweating and “Medicines–Hudson’s Bay Company.”

[A. Graham, 1768-1772, pp. 128-138]

Olive Oil

2   Kegs    Olive Oil

Part of Medicine Kit ordered for Rae’s 1853 Arctic Expedition.

[J. Rae, 1845, 309]

See also “Medicines–Hudson’s Bay Company.”

Opodeldoc

“opodeldoc” and “strengthening plaster” are noted in a letter dated 15 February 1796, dispatched by William Tomlinson to James Swain.   [This note intended to serve as replacement for definition appearing in the footnote of this page in the HBRS text.]

A camphorated soap.

[W. Tomison, 1795-6, 56-57]

Opium, Powder

1/4 ” powdered Opium

Part of Medicine Kit ordered for Rae’s 1853 Arctic Expedition.

[J. Rae, 1845, 309]

See also “Medicines–Hudson’s Bay Company.”

Opium, Tincture

1   oz      Tinct Opium

Part of Medicine Kit ordered for Rae’s 1853 Arctic Expedition.

[J. Rae, 1845, 309]

tincture of opium. 

Medicine noted in a letter from William Tomison to George Sutherland, dated 4 December 1797, Edmonton House].

[G. Sutherland, 1797, 129]

See also “Medicines–Hudson’s Bay Company.”

 

Oregon Grape [Berberis repens and Mahonia aquifolium]

“an Evergreen with a small berry which is Black–very much resembling Grapes, and Sarsaparilla with Beat root–these three latter Vegetables are made into a strong decoction (the colour similar to Port Wine) and in cases of Gonorrhea and Venereal Complaints, are held in high estimation, and some who have made experiments maintain, by drinking copiously of this preparation–it is an infallible antidote to the Disease.”  NOTE: Of “these three latter Vegetables,” it is unclear if he is referring to ‘St. John’s Wort, [Wild] Flax, and Oregon Grape,’ or ‘Oregon Grape, Sarsaparilla, and Bear root’ the latter option has all three herbs mentioned specifically as medicines (the Flax-like plant is noted as a fiber plant).

[Simpson, 1827, 191]

Peppermint, Essence of

“1/2 doz    Essce. of Peppermint    14/-       L -.7.-“

Part of Medicine Kit ordered for Rae’s 1845 Arctic Expedition.

[J. Rae, 1845, 309]

See also Medicines–Hudson’s Bay Company.

Physic

Very brief mention made, no diagnosis possible.

[A.R. McLeod, 1826, p. 155]

Pine

Miniakeg. (Pine), both red and white, “..they use the spruce of it in brewing, with hops and molasses, and it makes pleasant and healthy liquor.”

[A. Graham, 1768, pp. 128]

Plasters

See Adhesive Plasters, Blister Plasters, Lead Plasters, Mustard Plasters, Spread Plasters and Strengthening Plasters.

See “Sanative healing” and separately compiled Nun’s Hospital Notes, which goes into use of this remedy as as form of Sanative Healing.

Purges

“2 Doz.     Purges            1/4         L -.2.8”

Part of Medicine Kit ordered for Rae’s 1845 Arctic Expedition.

[J. Rae, 1845, 309]

See also Medicines–Hudson’s Bay Company.

Quackery

Notes an interesting transaction which took place between Natives and the French in the early days of British influence, as Britain attempted to dominate the Hudson’s Bay region. 

“…one third of the trade is carried on amongst the Quacks, the Stuffs as they Buy as he terms itt, I say do not asscribe so much to any Disseases’, as they do for the Desire of having them for other uses, not here mention’d and Did not they Receive some Benefitt by them it is not to be imagin’d they wou’d be so importuning for to have such; if the french finds no Disadvantage, or Detrimt, by giving the Natives such medicines, as they do in Great Quantity’s why shou’d we Defer assistinbg those people with Such; some of which I can prove is of Very Great Service; Such as Ointmts. &c. in case of Burn’s scold’s &c. therefore can not conceive how itt can be prejudicial to them or us.”

Related reference to this is made in the footnote to Ellis’s A Voyage to Hudson’s-Bay, By the Dobbs Galley and California, in the Years 1746 and 1747, For Discovering a North West Passage… (London, 1748), p. 98.  According to Ellis, those who inhabited “the Banks of the great inland Lakes” who like to profess Quacking (probably the Frenchmen) made use of “English” products like Sugar (from the British West Indies), Ginger, barley, Allspice, Spanish-Liquorice, Snuff, etc.  He described these “Quacks” as those “who practise for Furs, which they receive from, or rather, out of which they deceive, the Common people.”   Of these counterfeit businesses, he states “such kind of Traffick…besides being scandalous in its Nature, is equally prejudicial in it Consequences to us and to the Natives.”  He then notes regular trade habits with an Indian family.

Rhubarb

a small bottle of tincture of Rhubarb

powder of rhubarb 1/4 lb.

Two of the medicines received by Robert Garson and George Spence, on January 12, 1996, from James Swain of the Buckingham House.

[W. Tomison, 1795-6, 24-25]

See also Medicines–Hudson’s Bay Company.

Sanative Healing

“The Natives in these parts are of an incrediable (sic) strong consitution both men and women,–I have Known some that has had Legs mortified when gone away from the fort, to go in Land, when the Surgeon has been of that opinion that he has been past Recovery, and Next year has come Downe perfectly well, tho’ a Great Scar’, then a person of greater skill in Surgery would have had, if been at the Curing of itt.  the frequently cutt their own finger of and make a good Cure.–I Never Coud (sic) be informed. of more than 2 Remedies they have for any wound, which is, water and turpentine, they washing the wound Clean and applying this Bolsome [Balsam], by which they most and End Recover, they Likewise use fatt sometimes, though Nature is very favourable to them;–and as for any Sickness or any Distemper Inwardly, they have no other Remedy for such then Sweeting it off.  the Method of which is this…” [see Isham’s entry under “Sweating.”]

[Isham, 1743-9, 96]

NOTE:  This mention of recovery from mortification has to deal with the use of the Sanative remedy of applying a plaster, typically made from pine resin and/or mucilage as the base for a tree bark formula.  Mucilage-based plasters make use of Slippery Elm inner bark, or a Plantago poultice.  The description of “Legs mortified” but not yet black with gangrene, suggests there is early gangrene and/or the development of an infection systemically.  Systemic infection is typically characterized by red streaks leaving the wound and heading up the appendage towards the torso.  Traditional healers view these illnesses to be treatable, sanatively, by promoting the infection to erupt at the site of injury.  The resulting boil, ulcer or abcess you cause may produce a sizeable scar, but it helps prevent the death which could ensue otherwise by means of severe systemic infection . 

Sanative healing methods were popular amongst Native Americans, French-Canadian/Creoles, Indian Doctors, and Bible Belt Physicians such as the Church-trained healers from central and western Illinois (ca. 1842-1847), early Physio-Medical doctors, and Mormons. This Sanative healing practice also matches the philosophy and treatments carried out at the Nun’s Hospital in Quebec, beginning mid to late 1600s.   

St. John’s Wort (prob. Hypericum perforatum)

“applied as fomentation in topical inflammations”

[Simpson, 1827, 191]

Sandfly Bites–see Mosquito Bites.

Sarsaparilla (Aralia sp.?)

Identification unknown as of 3/23/96.  Perhaps an Aralia sp.  See Oregon Grape note.

[Simpson, 1827, 191]

Saturnine–see Lead Plaster

Saturnine Ointment

“2 jars     Sat. Ointment                 1/-         L -.2.-“

1  ”        Saturnine Do.

Part of Medicine Kits ordered for Rae’s 1845 and 1853 Arctic Expeditions.

[J. Rae, 1845, 309; 1853, 335]

See also “Medicines–Hudson’s Bay Company,” and “Foods–Hudson’s Bay Company” for Mustard Plaster inferences.

See also Lead Plaster, and “Medicines–Hudson’s Bay Company.”

Scurvy

Reference made to Ellis’s A Voyage to Hudson’s-Bay, By the Dobbs Galley and California, in the Years 1746 and 1747, For Discovering a North West Passage… (London, 1748).  p. 199, 167-9.  Treatments noted consist of “an infusion of Wizzakapuckka, the Broth of fish….or Else Sweet themselves.”

[Isham, 1743-9 (Ellis, 1746-7), 216-7]

See Sweating.

Scurvy Grass (Convolvulus soldanella)

Scurvy Grass has been found at this place Lately…”  The Editor identifies it in the footnote on page 132 as Sea Bindweed (Convolvulus Soldanella), found at the Prince of Wale’s and York Forts as early as May 18, 1738.  The Governor and Committee, in a letter to Richard Norton and Isham, requested that this plant and most others be planted in small boxes and shipped back to Europe in order for the surgeons to investigate them.    

[Isham, (1738) 1743-9, 132]

Missanepuck, Scurvy-grass.  Grows in great plenty.  Here, as in all northern climates, its efficacy was experienced by the several discoverers who wintered in this country, but it is little known by the Company’s servants; their healthy condition giving them no occasion for its virtues.

[A. Graham, 1768, pp. 129-30]

“Shaggamittee”

Identity?  See “Wishakapucka” note.

[Isham, 1743-9 (Ellis, 1746-7), 217]

Shrubs

*Shrubs…from time to time have been strictly examined by their surgeons, and several kinds have been sent home but turned out of none effect.” [See related footnote, pp. 129-130]

[A. Graham, 1768, pp. 129-30]

Soap Liniment

1/2 lb.     Soap Liniment                 5/7         -.2.10

Part of Medicine Kit ordered for Rae’s 1845 Arctic Expedition.

[J. Rae, 1845, 309]

See also Medicines–Hudson’s Bay Company.

Spanish Flies

some Spanish flies. 

Medicine noted in a letter from William Tomison to George Sutherland, dated 4 December 1797, Edmonton House].

[G. Sutherland, 1797, 129]

See also “Medicines–Hudson’s Bay Company.”

Spanish Juice [Spanish Flies?]

Spanish juice 2 lbs.

One of the medicines received by Robert Garson and George Spence, on January 12, 1996, from James Swain of the Buckingham House.

[W. Tomison, 1795-6, 24-25]

See also Medicines–Hudson’s Bay Company.

Spermaceti Ointment

1  ” Spermaceti Do.

Part of Medicine Kit ordered for Rae’s 1853 Arctic Expedition.

[J. Rae, 1845, 309]

See also “Medicines–Hudson’s Bay Company.”

Spread Plasters

See also Medicines–Hudson’s Bay Company.

2 yds Spread Plaster                2/-         -.4.-

Part of Medicine Kit ordered for Rae’s 1845 Arctic Expedition.

[J. Rae, 1845, 309]

See also Medicines–Hudson’s Bay Company.

Strengthening Plaster

4 oz. strengthening plaster

One of the medicines received by Robert Garson and George Spence, on January 12, 1996, from James Swain of the Buckingham House.

[W. Tomison, 1795-6, 24-25]

“strengthening plaster” is noted in a letter dated 15 February 1796, from William Tomlinson to James Swain.

[W. Tomison, 1795-6, 56-57]

See also Medicines–Hudson’s Bay Company.

Sulphur

sulphur 2 lbs.

One of the medicines received by Robert Garson and George Spence, on January 12, 1996, from James Swain of the Buckingham House.

[W. Tomison, 1795-6, 24-25]

See also Medicines–Hudson’s Bay Company.

Sweating/Sweat Lodge

“They make a Little hutt or tent, about four foot high and about 6 foot over,–which Done, they take as many Coats or skins, as they can procure, and Cover itt up close, Leaving a small Vacancy to go in att,–they then take about 20 Large stones, and heet them hott in the fire, in another tent, when hott, they put them into their hutt, or swetting house, as they Explain itt.  (Mu tu tu san a’ke,) then they go in Naked as they were born, their they sitt Like monkey’s upon their Brich, tell they are in a perdigious sweet,–and when they think they have swetted Suffitiently, then they come out, and Run as they are in Such a heat into the River if Summer, if Winter they wash temselves with Snow, by Which I never Knew itt did them Either good or harm,–Such methods with Some Europeans wou’d be prest. Death, But these natives are of such a Strong constitution as before mentioned that nought can hurt them.”

[Isham, 1743-9, 96]

Scurvy remedy 

“Sweeting and Bleeding is the only Remedy, they have for any internal Distemper, and acct. and Discription ofthe house Refer to Observations on Hudson Bay.”

[Isham, 1743-9 (Ellis, 1746-7), 216-7]

Sweating

“Sweating is also another remedy principally used; but it is also used by the healthful to clean and lubricate themselves, and as a preservative from sickness.  In order to this a dome or hut is prepared, by sticking alder or larch rods into the earth in circular form, like an ovens-crown; it is of sufficient height for a person to sit udner, and of a size proportional to the number of persons it is intended to contain.  In summer this sweating house is erected in the open air, but in winter within the tent.  It is covered all over with beaver-coats or other skins, so that the heat cannot easily escape.  The wife, or an old man or woman, is the attendant, and makes the stones hot in an adjacent fire.  The patient then goes in; if a woman, with her smock only; but the man strips himself of all except the assian.  The hot stones are generally placed in the centre, a vessel with water and a bit of spruce brush are also introduced; this is to wet the stones from time to time, that the steam may arise to procure the desired inceased of perspiration.  By a supply of hot stones the discharge is continued ad libitum, and an addition to their size or number will procure as intense a heat as can be supported.  The attendent is always provided with a supply of warm stones, and introduces the tobacco pipe when called for, for this must always be in their mouths.  When the person has sweat as much as he chooses sometimes the house is let cool gradually, and he will scrape off the sweat.  At other times he will come directly out and roll himslef about in the snow, or plunge into the river without any bad consequence from a conduct so extraordinary.  I once saw an Englishman try this method, but his curiosity had well nigh proved fatal to him; for when he ran into the water, he immeidately fell down unable to stand or sudden a shock, and had not some of his fellow servants been present he would in all probability been drowned.” 

[A. Graham, 1767-91, pp. 163-4]

See Scurvy.

Talisman–see Medicine Bag

Tuckathin

“Tuckathin, or doctors, are numerous and, like the jugglers, held in great esteem.  It is common to see one profess both astrology and medicine.  Besides the knowledge of plants and herbs that grow in the country, he usually procures atrunk with medicines at the factory, which gives great satisfaction to himself, and engages the esteem of others.  There are also itinerant druggists among them, who come from the southward every year and barter roots and herbs of various kinds.  I have seen a white root of a spongy nature, used as a cathartic; a species of grass for an emetic.  They also make use of the inner bark of the juniper tree, or a decoction of pine buds, to cure the venereal disorder. The herb Wishikapuckaw is also used buy them for slight ailments.  Their ointment for cuts and bruises and outward sores is usally made of deer and buffalo fat, and the turpentine of pines.  They sometimes cut off fingers and toes after they have been frozen, and perform several considerable cures; but the good constitution of their patients has frequently the greatest share in their success.  They make great use of phlebotomy.  There are several ways of performing it.  Sometimes they simply scarify over the vein in several spots, and have a discharge of blood from each orifice.  Sometimes a bit of flint or glass is fastened to the end of a small piece of stick or twig, in the form of a fleam used by farriers, which stick being elevated whilst the other end is held firm, it descends with sufficient force by its elasticity to make a puncture through which the blood is emitted very freely.  They will have another method: an incision is made over the vein with a knife or flint (generally on the bakc of the hand or arm).  The blood vessel is then elevated by means of a needle thrust through it; the needle is then cut out, and thus the orifice is made sufficiently large, and any injury to the parts prevented.  I permitted one of them to bleed me after this manner when I was with the natives on the Company’s duty, being much afflicted with the headache and dizziness, and found benefit by it.”

[A. Graham, 1767-91, pp. 162-3]

Turlington’s Balsam

“1/2 doz   Turlingtons Balsam       21/4     L -.10.8”

Part of Medicine Kit ordered for Rae’s 1845 Arctic Expedition.

[J. Rae, 1845, 309]

one bottle of Turlington

One of the medicines given to Robert Garson and George Spence, on January 12, 1996, by James Swain of the Buckingham House.

[W. Tomison, 1795-6, 24-25]

The footnote on pages 24-25 of the HBRS Vol. 26 gives a little history on this Patent Medicine.

See also Medicines–Hudson’s Bay Company.

Tzachin

“Some Europeans make use of a called by the Natives Tzachin—it has a bitterish taste, and when eat with dried salmon–conveys an agreeable zest to the palate–the peculiar smell of the Fish being destroyed.”

[Simpson, 1827, 191]

Venereal Disease–see Oregon Grape

Vomits

“1 doz      Vomits                        1/4      L -.1.4”

Part of Medicine Kit ordered for Rae’s 1845 Arctic Expedition.

[J. Rae, 1845, 309]

See also Medicines–Hudson’s Bay Company.

Wild Flax (Linum sp.? Apocynum sp.?)

“there is a Kind of Weed which is converted into Flax, and in general demand”

[Simpson, 1827, 191]

Wishekapacwaw–see Labrador Tea

Wishakapucka–see Labrador Tea